The Terra Incognita team has written dozens of works for academic journals and books, on a variety of topics. Check out some of these published works written by the Terra Incognita team. Expand them to see the abstract and click on the image to see the first page of each article. If you would like a pdf copy of any of these works, please send us a message. We are happy to send it your way, free of charge! For book chapters, if you’d like to purchase the full book from the publisher, click on the image of the book cover.

  • Chapter 15 in Routes, Interaction and Exchange in the Southern Maya Area

Book cover titled "Routes, Interaction and Exchange in the Southern Maya Area," edited by Eugenia J. Robinson and Gavin R. Davies, part of the Routledge Archaeology of the Ancient Americas series. The cover has a patterned background with white lines on a muted green background, and a red band with white text.

  • Chapter 6 In De Chupícuaro a Teotihuacan: Arqueología del valle del Rio Tigre, Guanajuato.

  • Chapter 7 in Imagination et Construction mentale: La fabrique du discours scientifique

  • Hematite, and more broadly ochre, have long been used by humans throughout history for a variety of applications. In prehistoric North America the use of hematite is as old as its first migrants. This data article includes data related to the analysis of archaeological hematite in the American Bot- tom region in Missouri and Illinois, U.S.A. The data include archaeological samples dating from the Late Archaic Period (3000 –1000 BCE) to the Middle Woodland Period (150 BCE –400 CE) from nine sites within the general St. Louis area (n = 69), as well as 29 samples from Verkamp Rockshelter in the iron-rich region of the Meramec River Valley. The data is supplemented with geological samples collected from five raw deposits in southeastern Missouri (n = 70). Data was acquired through Neutron Activation Analysis to assess provenance of all archaeological samples. Following the irradiation of samples, data was normalized for iron content before statistical analysis. A variety of multivariate statistical routines, including principal component and cluster analyses were then employed to assess possible origin locales for all archaeological samples. This data article also includes maps, tables, and figures to assist in understanding the analysis conducted.

  • Ochre analysis in Missouri

Book cover titled 'Imagination & Construction Mentale', featuring neon-style illustrations of flying and imaginative machines, balloons, and fantastical flying creatures against a black background.
Book cover with red background titled "De Chupícuaro a Teothihuacán". It features line art of a face profile, archaeological artifacts, and a decorated border.

  • This paper challenges the still-popular use of territory, materiality, genetics, and linguistics to define a homogeneous and stable shared identity (or "diffuse unity") for the Isthmo-Colombian Area. Using the communities of practice and communities of consumption concepts, we suggest that the distribution of pottery was the result of practices related to production, exchange, and use of pottery, and not necessarily ethnic affiliation. This research is based on compositional and technological characterization of 117 ceramic samples through neutron activation analysis (NAA) and thin section analysis to identify the recipes people used in the Late Pre-Columbian period (AD 700-1500). Results show the different articulation of communities of potters and communities of consumption in Central and Eastern Panama. The analysis introduces more dynamic representations of the past by focusing on the value of consuming imported pottery for culinary, ritual, and political events for different pre-Columbian groups.

  • Excavations conducted by Beloit College in 1958 and 1960 identified the site of La Magdalena in the Bajío of Mexico. Investigators have since highlighted three primary phases of occupation at La Magdalena, two of which were proposed to have been culturally influenced by Teotihuacan or Tula. Modern research in the Bajío mostly diverges from those postulations of distant connections, supplanting them with local patterns that hold much more explanatory power. Archaeometric studies are pivotal in this regard but have thus far been infrequently used. This research analyzes the obsidian assemblage from La Magdalena and finds a nearly ubiquitous utilization of a local obsidian source known as Ojo Zarco. These findings merit a reevaluation of obsidian in the eastern Bajío and argue for more archaeometric studies that elucidate local procurement patterns.

  • During the Early/Middle Postclassic (AD 900-1350), the Aztatlan Tradition spread throughout Western Mexico and grew to be one of the most influential groups in the region. The cultural core of this tradition was centered on the coastal plain of Nayarit with numerous major population centers taking part in expansive trade networks. One such major Aztatlán site is Coamiles, excavated from 2005 to 2010 by the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historía (INAH). From these excavations, we here present the results of ceramic and obsidian analyses as well as discussions of site architecture. These results demonstrate the widespread importation of obsidian from the Jalisco highlands as well as simultaneous local production of lithic tools from more proximal sources. In contrast, ceramic analyses illustrate a ceramic industry that appears largely reliant upon local production with little, if any, ceramic trade. Finally, the architecture of the ceremonial center suggests an integration into broader cosmological belief systems that are still maintained today with modern indigenous populations. Overall, Coamiles was a paragon of Aztatlán culture. We can look to Coamiles and see similar attributes as we find throughout the entire coastal plain during the Postclassic. In this way, Coamiles is an ideal case study for understanding this prolific tradition.

  • Understanding cultural identity has been a critical aspect of archaeology since its inception. The Bordes-Binford debate famously tackled the issue of cultural identity based upon material culture in the 1960 s. Since then, the issue of cultural affiliation has been addressed in a variety of ways. Critical to this is the understanding of colonization, diasporas, and immigration. In this study, we consider the topic of cultural identity at the site of El Tesoro, Hidalgo, which exhibits cultural elements related to both Teotihuacán and the Valley of Oaxaca. Given the presence of both cultural styles, El Tesoro has previously been suspected to be a Zapotec enclave, perhaps founded by people who emigrated from the Oaxaca Barrio of Teotihuacán. One important example of the dual cultural representations is in the ceramic assemblage at El Tesoro. In this study, we have used Neutron Activation Analysis to assess provenance for a number of sherds which feature distinct Zapotec or Teotihuacán styles. Our results indicate that these ceramics were not the product of importation, but they were presumably made locally, even using the same recipes across both cultural traditions. Given these results and other mixed cultural expressions such as burials, we suggest that this indicates hybridization between the two cultures. Rather than affiliating themselves with one culture or the other, we propose that the Classic period community at El Tesoro can more accurately be described as "Zapo-Teotihuacáno", as a creolization of both cultures. In contrast with a colonization or enclave model, El Tesoro may instead be thought of as the product of a trade diaspora in which individuals/groups moved to frontier locations as a way to facilitate trade between disparate locales. In doing so, they were incentivized to take on traits of both cultures.

  • A core region is the first place for expected shifts in archaeological materials before, during, and after political changes like state emergence and imperial consolidation. Yet, studies of ceramic production have shown that there are sometimes limited or more subtle changes in the ceramic economy throughout such political fluctuations. This article synthesizes recent efforts to address political economic changes via geochemical characterization (neutron activation analysis; NAA) in the Lake Pátzcuaro Basin in western Mexico. This region was home to the Purépecha state and then empire (Tarascan; ca. AD 1350-1530), one of the most powerful kingdoms in the Americas before European arrival. The combined ceramic dataset from four sites in the region result in eight geochemical groups. Our analysis indicates that the region experienced long-term and relatively stable ceramic production that was not substantially altered by the emergence of the state and empire. In addition, we find evidence for (1) dispersed, localized production; (2) long-lived compositional ceramic recipes; and (3) a complex ceramic economy with differential community participation. We discuss why documenting local ceramic production and craft production more generally is important for the study of past political economies.

  • Of the many items that were traded throughout the Postclassic (A.D. 850/900–1350) Aztatlan network, obsidian was perhaps the most prevalent. In this study, large assemblages of obsidian from five Aztatlan centers on the coastal plain are discussed: San Felipe Aztatan, Chacalilla, Amapa, Coamiles, and Peñitas. In total, over 12,000 obsidian artifacts were analyzed macroscopically and through handheld portable X-ray fluorescence. The results of these analyses illustrate regional patterns of obsidian use that appear consistent across the coastal plain. Generally, only three obsidian sources were used with frequency. The most proximal source was utilized for generalized reduction and probably acquired directly, while more distant obsidians from the Jalisco highlands are commonly found in the form of prismatic blades. These trends in obsidian use indicate an increase in source diversity concurrent with the development of the Aztatlan trade networks despite the local availability of quality obsidians. Finally, synchronic patterns of source distribution further indicate that sources were unevenly distributed as certain individuals likely had greater access to imported blades. In conclusion, this large study provides a regional perspective of obsidian use in Western Mexico on the coastal plain and showcases the pervasiveness of the obsidian trade during the Postclassic.

  • Our study situates the classic period center Matacanela, located in southern Veracruz, Mexico, within the context of shifting regional political‐economic systems. Specifically, we assess the potential for utilizing neutron activation analysis (NAA) of pottery in the study of changing interactions through a focus on three ceramic wares: Coarse Orange, Fine Orange, and Coarse Brown. NAA identified four com positional groups, suggesting that Matacanela selectively utilized ceramics from a variety of sources, but the center's inhabitants overwhelming used ceramics that were only occasionally exploited by their contemporaries in the nearby Catemaco and Tepango valleys. Instead, the center's primary ceramic exchange partners were in the southern Tuxtlas foothills. This divergent pattern of ceramic exchange parallels earlier obsidian exploitation differences that revealed participation in the networks of the western Tuxtla uplands as well as the southern foothills and centers within eastern Olman. The findings of this study contribute to the geological characterization of ceramic resources used by ancient Gulf lowland societies, to the comparative ceramic database in a region that was an important nexus for diverse cultural traditions spanning Mesoamerican prehistory, and the refinement of our knowledge relevant to the divergent strategies employed by groups.

  • Once known as America’s ‘Haven of Health’, the city of Excelsior Springs, Missouri, USA was home to an estimated 40 unique mineral spring and well sites. This collection of mineral waters is one of the largest in the world. After the discovery of the first spring in the late nineteenth century, the reputation of its therapeutic potential quickly spread. Subsequently, hundreds and thousands flocked to the area daily to enjoy the various health spas and recreational facilities. This study includes the results of archaeological excavations at the most prominent of the springs in the city, Regent Spring. Though once hosting scores of visitors per day who sought health, relaxation and socialization at the spring and associated park, all remnants and features of it have been completely lost to time. Analysis of artefacts recovered at the site illustrate a history of early 1900s health tourism and hydrotherapy. As well as archaeological analysis, primary documents in the form of contemporaneous postcards reveal the motivations and perspective of visitors to this water-centric town. Through these multidisciplinary analyses, this study explores how attitudes towards hydrotherapy and health tourism changed over time and how this town addressed this evolution by shifting focus from mineral springs, to recreation and eventually to state-of the art medical facilities.

  • Throughout time, cultures have manipulated the landscape for a variety of reasons, including the promotion of social control. One approach to facilitating this control is through omnipresent surveillance, known as a Panopticon design. Though the Panopticon is more commonly associated with structural design in industrial societies, the large earthen mounds constructed by prehistoric civilizations could have also played a role in maintaining social order. To explore the applicability of the Panopticon concept in a prehistoric context, visibility of the largest manmade earthen mound in the New World, Monks Mound, was modeled in a geographic information system. Results indicate that the terraces on the mound and the powerful individuals residing there would have been visible to most of the population, even when accounting for subsequent landscape modifications. This level of visibility would have projected an omnipresent threat of surveillance, possibly facilitating social order and cohesion among such a large population.

  • Ceramic and chert artifacts constitute the main evidence for understanding trade and cultural dynamics in prehistoric eastern Missouri. But despite its relative ubiquity, hematite, most often characterized as ochre, has rarely been considered for such research. To partially fill the void, neutron activation analysis (NAA) was utilized to analyze collections of hematite artifacts excavated from the Truman Road Site (n = 31) and other nearby sites (n = 7) in the lower Missouri River valley. Our results indicate no significant temporal or spatial patterning of its usage or acquisition. Similarly, low correlation exists between the chemistry and artifact type. Furthermore, the assemblage is compositionally distinct from previously analyzed source samples from elsewhere in Missouri. Therefore, the origin of the artifacts remains undetermined. Although they could not be linked to a single acquisition locale, the results suggest at least two separate, although possibly related, sources. Overall, this study serves to increase our understanding of the characterization and diversity of hematite and its usage in prehistoric Missouri.

  • This paper presents the results of instrumental neutron activation analysis of 332 decorated serving vessels from household excavations in the "settler" community within Xaltocan, Mexico. Our findings demonstrate significant ceramic production of all major Black-on-Orange and Redware types during the Middle Postclassic, Late Postclassic, and early Colonial periods. While Aztec scholars have assumed that rural ceramic production was limited to simpler designs and forms, we find that the most elaborately decorated pots were produced at Xaltocan during the periods of its political subjugation, economic marginalization, and smallest populace. Our results support a decentralized model of Aztec ceramic production and continuity despite imperial and colonial strategies of rule. Xaltocan's potters persevered and supplied the town with feasting vessels through multiple political transitions. We tentatively identify two potting communities using the Xaltocan 1a and 1b clay sources, the patronage of which was socially and spatially variable within the site. These patterns were visible only with large-scale household excavations and extensive sampling from precisely dated household middens. Finally, within the potting community that utilized Xaltocan 1a clays, the major wares-Orangewares and Redwares-were likely produced in different workshops and/or using different recipes, and this organizational strategy was maintained across the colonial transition.

  • This paper presents the results of the INAA of 28 geological clay samples from the Toluca Valley (Upper Lerma) in the State of Mexico, Mexico and the immediately adjacent areas to the north, west, and south. While preliminary , these results demonstrate that there are internal elemental clines within the Toluca Valley, based on elevation (Na, K) and latitude (Cr), among other patterns. These samples also demonstrate that the underlying geology of the Toluca Valley can be systematically differentiated from that of the adjacent Basin of Mexico based on higher Ba and lower K concentrations. This study confirms the results of prior analyses of archaeological ceramics from the Toluca Valley, and provides new avenues for dividing the region into multiple sub-regional source areas in future archaeological analyses.

  • From the beginning of our era, the multi-ethnic capital of the central plateau, Teotihuacan, served as a great religious center and a hub for artisanal production and consumption. By AD 200, Teotihuacan entered a phase of expansion, which took different forms depending on the quality of resources and the political importance of the particular regions to which its influence spread. This paper examines the specific role of one site located along a key trade route in north central Mexico. Our study utilizes a multi-method approach, combining typological, archaeometric (NAA and petrography) and iconographic data from ceramics from the site of El Mezquital- Los Azules (Guanajuato) to improve our understanding of the mechanisms of the Teotihuacan expansion in Northwestern Mexico. The results of these ceramic analyses allow us to distinguish imports from imitations, and provide a better understanding of the possible messages conveyed by the iconography of the imitations. Based upon our findings, we argue that this commercial staging post was an emanation of the neighborhoods of Teotihuacan, and was integrated in its constantly evolving social fabric.

  • This data article contains archaeological context information and paste compositional data from 66 pottery sherds collected at seven archaeological sites in the Manialtepec Basin on the Pacific coast of Oaxaca, Mexico. The data include maps showing collection locations, a drawing of one archaeological profile, photographs of sherds, and compositional data produced by Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis at the University of Missouri Research Reactor (MURR). The NAA data include a tabulation of principal components, data from log-based cluster analyses and compositional group defining discriminant analyses. The data also include bootstrapped Mahalanobis distance calculations. For data interpretation, refer to “Ceramic Production and Consumption in an In-Between Place: Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis of Ceramics from the Manialtepec Basin of Oaxaca”

  • Included here are geochemical concentrations (ppm) of ceramic artifacts and clay samples from the archaeological site of Angamuco, Mexico. Additional data include maps and photographs of the ceramic samples. Concentrations were measured via Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis and are available here as Appendix B. These data complement the discussions and interpretations in “Geochemical Analysis and Spatial Trends of Ceramics and Clay from Angamuco, Michoacán”

  • This paper reports the results of instrumental neutron activation analysis of 66 pottery samples from seven archaeological sites in the Manialtepec Basin of Oaxaca, Mexico. Located on the central Pacific coast, the Manialtepec Basin is a 60 km2 pocket surrounded by mountains and dominated by a 1200-ha lagoon. Settlement survey of the basin has identified 21 archaeological sites spanning the Late Formative (400–150 BCE) to the Late Postclassic (1100-1522CE) periods. Although the basin's small size and circumscribed agricultural terrain likely limited precolumbian populations, its geographic position would have placed it interstitially between several significant regional political centers, notably the lower Río Verde valley (57 km to the west), the Valley of Oaxaca (130 km to the north), and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (300 km to the east). Recent research has focused on understanding how inhabitants of the Manialtepec Basin engaged with other regions of Oaxaca and Mesoamerica. INAA results confirm the existence of a local ceramic industry, with pottery production and intrabasin exchange continuing for nearly 2000 years. The evidence also indicates that the basin's inhabitants were aware of, and actively involved in, broader regional trends in ceramic manufacture. They nonetheless maintained an independent and distinct local ceramic industry despite major geopolitical shifts like the collapse of Oaxacan metropoles and the conquest of the basin by the Mixtec Tututepec Empire in the Late Postclassic period. Our results highlight the agency and dynamism of potters in an in-between place.

  • An important aspect of studying ancient empire formation is the role of local political economies throughout imperial fluctuations. Such insight can help us understand how imperial powers may or may not have exerted control over their subjects, and the broader impacts of imperial change on local populations. This study uses geochemical analysis (INAA) of ceramic samples and raw clays from Angamuco, located in the Lake Pátzcuaro Basin, Michoacán. Angamuco was occupied before and throughout the development of the Purépecha Empire (1350–1530 CE) and is thus an important case study for evaluating the impacts of political change on material production and manufacturing. We identify four compositional groups, two of which match previously identified groups elsewhere in the lake basin. We argue that Angamuco ceramics were largely locally produced and that raw material use remained relatively stable over long periods. The results of this study contribute to our understanding of ceramic production processes at Angamuco and will be compared to archaeometric studies in Western Mesoamerica and elsewhere.

  • This study uses neutron activation analysis of ceramics to examine economic change and increasing social complexity at the Preclassic Maya site of Cahal Pech in Belize (1200 cal BC–cal AD 300). Seven compositional groups were identified from the site’s civic-ceremonial centre and two peripheral residential groups. Analyses indicate that both utilitarian and non-utilitarian ceramics were locally produced as early as 1200 cal BC, and that by c. 700 cal BC, fineware vessels were being exported into neighbouring parts of Guatemala. These results provide direct evidence for economic interaction between Maya lowland communities and for their increasing socio-political complexity.

  • This study reports on type: variety-mode classification, digital stereomicroscopy, petrography, neutron activation analysis, and previously published reports and characterizes production and distribution of Mars Orange Paste Ware in the Middle Preclassic-period Maya Lowlands. The sample consists of 2028 sherds of Mars Orange Paste Ware from Holtun, Guatemala, and 4105 sherds reported from sites in Central Belize and Peten Guatemala. The combined data suggest Mars Orange Paste Ware was a “short-distance” trade ware produced in the northeastern Maya Lowlands and distributed from Central Belize to the west.

  • This data article contains an atlas of paste fabrics and supplemental paste compositional data generated from Late Middle Preclassic-period ceramics at the Maya site of Holtun, Guatemala. The data include maps showing locations of archeological contexts, excavation profiles, photographs and photomicrographs of sherds and paste fabrics, and compositional data produced by Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) at the Research Reactor, University of Missouri (MURR). The NAA data include a biplot and table of canonical discriminant analyses, Mahalonobis distance calculations, and Euclidian distance searches between the samples.

  • This study uses type: variety-mode classification, digital stereomicroscopy, and Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) to characterize the paste composition of Late Middle Preclassic-period pottery at the site of Holtun, Guatemala. The sample consists of 98 sherds including unslipped utilitarian-ware, slipped serving-ware, and Mars Orange fine paste serving ware. NAA reveals four paste composition groups that approximate types produced through type: variety-mode classification and paste groups recognized by digital stereomicroscopy. The analysis suggests a pattern of production in which unslipped utilitarian vessels, slipped serving vessels, and Mars Orange fine paste serving vessels were produced using different paste recipes. While unslipped utilitarian vessels and slipped serving vessels may have been produced and consumed locally, Mars Orange fine paste serving vessels were likely produced in or around Holtun but consumed more widely. Results of this research suggest the Late Middle Preclassic-period ceramic economy at Holtun was characterized by incipient specialized production, and exchange of at least one ceramic ware. These results advance our understanding of Late Middle Preclassic period ceramic production and exchange at Holtun, and inform the study of the development of socio-political complexity in the Maya lowlands.

  • Various studies in the past have utilized a costly signaling model to understand the importance of foreign goods. With few exceptions, stone tools have been ignored in the discussion. Sourcing studies of lithic industries have often failed to acknowledge the social benefits of such trade for utilitarian objects that are also locally available with presumably lower acquisition costs. The Postclassic Aztatlán center of San Felipe Aztatán in Nayarit, Mexico is a particularly compelling case study for such an investigation. Here, both local and exotic obsidians are used abundantly, but the reason for this remains unclear. I propose that costly signaling may be the reason for the importation of these more costly lithics. To qualify this, I demonstrate that obsidian source can be easily differentiated visually with little effort despite similar appearance, making it a reliable signal of wealth and connections through visual sourcing experimentation. I then use Game Theory in the form of a Truth-Lying Game to illustrate the rational motivations for signaling as well as the deference to the presumed elevated rank of the signaler by the receiver. Through these analyses, I demonstrate the efficacy of obsidian source as a costly signal.

  • In this report, I have detailed the chemistry and usage of the Volcán las Navajas source in Western Mexico. This source, located 18 km from the capital city of Tepic, Nayarit, was only recently identified in the literature in 2010. Here, I have reanalyzed this source using pXRF to define its chemistry and confirm the previous identification of two chemically distinct subsources. I have then identified the usage patterns at four Postclassic Aztatlán centers. Considering large assemblages from Coamiles, Chacalilla, San Felipe Aztatán, and Amapa, I have determined that this source was seemingly one of the most important sources utilized by the Aztatlán people. However, it has been utilized in specific ways. Despite large cobble size, abundance, high quality, and proximity, it is clear that Volcán las Navajas was preferred for generalized reduction while more distant sources were preferred for prismatic blades.

  • Social inequality is a problem at the forefront of anthropological inquiry. The material record can give us valuable information about what resources were used at a given archaeological site. In this study, I have used obsidian and its distribution as a proxy for access to resources. By determining which obsidian sources were used and by whom, we can begin to understand the differential access to resources which is paramount to understanding social inequalities.

    This research uses a combination of visual sourcing and XRF geochemical sourcing to identify patterns in volcanic sources of obsidian artifacts at Post-classic San Felipe Aztatán in Nayarit, Mexico. Despite excellent quality sources being easily accessible, more sophisticated lithic reduction techniques such as prismatic blade production, seem to have been used only with more distant sources. With no substantial qualitative differences among obsidian sources, purely social factors likely resulted in the temporal and spatial distribution patterns at San Felipe Aztatán. Here, the limited area in which Pachuca obsidian is found may indicate an area of elite residence or elite activity, while its limited temporal distribution may reflect the emergence of trade and influence of the Aztatlán tradition dating to the Amapa Phase during the Classic Period (500–750 CE).

    This research may have greater application for other sites across space and time. If obsidian source can be utilized to identify social stratification, we may be able to understand the spatial and social organization of specific sites as well as the complex dynamic trading relationships among sites.

  • In Reassessing the Aztatlán World: Ethnogenesis and Cultural Continuity in Northwest Mesoamerica

Book cover titled 'Reassessing the Aztlán World: Ethnogenesis and Cultural Continuity in Northwest Mesoamerica,' edited by Michael D. Mathiowetz and John M. D. Pohl. The cover features an image of a large decorated ceramic vessel on the left and a group of people in traditional clothing walking on a trail under a clear blue sky on the right.

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